[31c] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Christian Europe and its Church did not waste much time in capitalising on the circumstances of modernisation and reforms. Just seventeen days after the issuance of the decree, the first missionary expeditions departed from Marseille towards the Ottoman capital, carrying with them their hostile ideas towards Muslims and the Quran, which they accused of prohibiting education. The influence of these reforms quickly spread to the semi-autonomous Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In Tunisia, Muhammad Bey issued the “Ahd al-Aman” in 1857, based on the following principles.

• Human beings can only achieve success if their freedom is guaranteed and justice serves as a protective barrier against aggression.
• Complete security.
• Absolute equality before the law for both Muslims and non-Muslims:
• Foreigners should enjoy the same rights as Tunisians, be allowed to engage in various types of business, and possess ownership rights. Egypt followed a similar path, with these laws being enacted in Istanbul, Tunisia, and Egypt.

The modernisation efforts, initially a European desire supported by certain elite groups, evolved into official laws in which the Sultan committed to implementing necessary reforms to Westernise Islamic society. The conflict shifted from external pressure on the Ottoman state to an intense internal struggle, characterised by a clash between authorities that opted for, or were compelled to adopt, Western institutions and a society that resisted these changes, relying on scholars, jurists, and preachers who strongly opposed the modernisation movement on the grounds that it contradicted Islamic law. [Footnote a]

One of the most notable features of these reforms was that:

The initial official documents did not derive their authority from Islamic law; instead, they were based on a secular source of legislation inspired by European constitutional experiences. These documents included Western concepts such as “nation,” as reflected in the text, rather than using the term “Ummah.” This marked a significant step towards the separation of religion from the state. [Footnote b]

The concepts of “full security declaration,” “covenant of safety,” and “Council of Representatives,” along with other elements inspired by Western experiences, facilitated a form of legitimacy for the ongoing oppression of the general populace. Additionally, they paved the way for a class of Western merchants and missionaries to align Ottoman society with Western laws and missionary ideologies.

The constitutional framework established by Khedive Ismail and Hayreddin Pasha in 1876 marked a significant milestone in Islamic history. For the first time, a constitution inspired by the French, Belgian, and Swiss models—secular and civil in nature—was implemented within an Islamic state.

The reforms implemented by the Ottoman Empire officially set it on a path toward its decline as an Islamic state. The secularisation of laws, the establishment of institutions operating under civil regulations, and the departure from Islamic legislation in areas such as trade, politics, and economics undermined the Empire’s legitimacy in the eyes of Muslims. Furthermore, the Empire faced internal adversaries, as European encroachment in cultural, economic, and political spheres, coupled with the skepticism of Muslims and religious scholars regarding the state’s actions, initiated a conflict that would persist beyond the fall of the Ottoman Empire and continues to this day.

It is crucial to acknowledge what transpired. Sultan Abdul Hamid II documented his historical testimony in his memoirs, illustrating his efforts to save the Ottoman Empire as it faced significant challenges and was under siege. He was a ruler who understood the true nature of the modernisation movements, which were labeled as the “Reform Movement” to disguise their genuine intentions of aligning the Ottoman state with the West. Consequently, he faced opposition from constitutionalists and the Donme Jews, leading to his eventual deposition. In the later years of his reign, he wrote as a ruler stripped of his will, revealing the realities of renewal and reform:

“The changes they advocate for under the guise of reform will ultimately lead to our decline. One must question why our adversaries, who have made a pact with malevolence, specifically recommend this course of action. It is evident that they are fully aware that reform is a malady rather than a remedy, and it poses a significant threat to the very existence of this empire. If we are to consider implementing any reforms, we must take into account the prevailing conditions within the country and refrain from evaluating the situation based solely on the intellectual standards of a small group of officials. Additionally, we must acknowledge the skepticism of the scholarly class towards all things European. The Europeans mistakenly believe that the only path to salvation lies in wholly adopting their civilization. There is no doubt that our model of development differs from that of Europeans. We must evolve under natural conditions and through our own efforts, while also taking advantage of external circumstances in specific situations. It is profoundly unjust to be accused of opposing everything that originates from the West”.

The balance of justice has accurately assessed the Ottoman reform movement and the ways to benefit from Western civilization. I believe it is beneficial for the esteemed reader to understand Islam’s stance on Western civilization as well as other pre-Islamic cultures, and to explore how one can derive advantages from these civilizations.

The utilization of Western civilization, along with others, can be categorized into three types:

First: The adoption of industries, their foundations, scientific discoveries, experimental sciences, military advancements, and natural sciences such as mathematics, chemistry, physics, engineering, biology, and astronomy. This should be done after careful examination and purification from any influences of ignorance, and then restructured within a framework that aligns with Islamic principles. These elements fall into two categories: one that is obligatory to acquire and adopt, particularly those that are critically needed by Muslims, or those without which certain obligations cannot be fulfilled, such as weaponry and military systems relevant to the call to Islam and jihad. Therefore, anything that Muslims require—within permissible limits—in this area should be embraced and utilized, as Muslims have a rightful claim to it. [Footnote c]

The establishment of an Islamic state necessitates the use of permissible means, which include complete caution and full awareness. Allah has mandated that Muslims take necessary precautions, remain vigilant, and be self-sufficient, avoiding reliance on what is held by non-believers, regardless of the circumstances. [Footnote d]

The second point concerns imitation in acts of worship, beliefs, principles, concepts, perceptions, and philosophical views regarding the universe, life, and humanity, which are related to faith. These matters lack detailed explanation and are unequivocally prohibited. Seeking guidance from non-believers in these areas can lead to apostasy or disbelief if the imitator believes in their validity and adheres to them. At the very least, it is considered sinful due to ignorance of their true nature. [Footnote e]

The third point concerns the imitation of morals, behavioral patterns, etiquette, culture, thought, and artistic production, among other aspects. These matters may either conflict with the fundamental principles and rules of Islam or involve practices that the Sharia prohibits emulating from non-Muslims, rendering them impermissible. Alternatively, they may pertain to issues whose rulings are unclear, which at the very least makes them undesirable. Conversely, what is deemed a virtue within that civilization—though it is quite rare—might be permissible.

(Imam) Muhammad Amin Al-Shanqiti, in his work “Adwa’ Al-Bayan,” critiques the stance of Muslims towards Western civilization, stating that empirical evidence clearly indicates that Western civilization encompasses both beneficial and harmful aspects. The beneficial aspects are primarily material, showcasing advancements across various fields, which are evident and require no further explanation. The benefits it has provided to humanity are immense, particularly in terms of physical existence. Conversely, the harmful aspects stem from a complete neglect of the most crucial element of all goodness, which is the religious education of individuals and the refinement of their morals. He then stated, after discussing the ruling on benefiting from the useful aspects of it:

“The Messenger ﷺ benefited from the directions of a disbeliever, who, despite being a disbeliever, directed him on the path during the migration. This evidence clarifies that the appropriate stance of Islam and Muslims towards Western civilization is to strive to acquire its material advancements while being cautious of the rebellion it has fostered against the Creator of the universe, may He be exalted. This approach would lead to success in both this world and the Hereafter. Unfortunately, most individuals reverse this issue, adopting moral decline, detachment from religion, and distancing themselves from obedience to the Creator, without reaping any material benefits. Consequently, they lose both this world and the Hereafter, which is indeed a manifest loss”.

The wave of Western imitation surged powerfully during the period of decline and weakness within the Ottoman Empire, as destructive forces conspired against it from both within and outside. Faced with a sense of inferiority compared to the emerging Christian nations, the Ottoman state began to emulate these countries and adopted their new innovations. This coincided with a stagnation in Muslim thought and a departure from the original divine guidance. Consequently, they unwittingly drew from non-believers without understanding the reasons behind the advancements of those nations, failing to pursue genuine efforts to catch up through self-reliance and the contributions of the Muslim community.

A powerful wave of blind imitation began to surge, driven by irrational desires and internal deviations, as well as cunningly orchestrated efforts from abroad. Consequently, Islamic countries started to follow this path one after another, beginning with Turkey, followed by Egypt, the Levant, then Tunisia, Iran, and India.

A thorough examination of the history of nations and an analysis of their conditions reveal that imitation occurs between different nations and groups, leading to similarities, interactions, and amalgamations that weaken the distinctiveness and independence of the imitating nation. This results in a fragile national identity. According to the divine order established by Allah in creation, a weaker, subjugated nation often admires a stronger, dominant one. Through this admiration, it adopts the morals, behaviors, and lifestyles of the stronger nation, eventually extending to the imitation of its beliefs, ideas, culture, literature, and arts. Consequently, the imitating nation loses its intrinsic qualities and, if it had a civilization, it becomes dependent on others.

If the subjugated nation does not take initiative to rectify its situation and liberate itself through its own efforts and struggle against the burden of blind imitation, it will inevitably face decline, enslavement, and the complete loss of its identity. This will lead to severe social ailments such as humiliation, feelings of inferiority, and a lack of self-confidence. Additionally, it will result in political and economic dependency, as well as a pervasive sense of defeatism. For divinely guided nations with a sacred mission, such as the Islamic nation, imitating others diverts them from their true purpose.

It diverts their efforts and energies away from the path of Allah, burdening them with innovations, superstitions, and systems and laws not ordained by Allah. This leads them to ultimately abandon their mission and, consequently, to pledge allegiance to disbelievers and tyrants. Such actions signal the impending wrath and punishment of Allah, as illustrated in the stories of numerous nations in the Quran. [Footnote f]

An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/422-434

Footnote a: Imam As-Sadi, may Allah have mercy upon him, said:

Indeed, it is impossible to rectify the souls and acquire virtue solely through the worldly sciences. Experience and clearly witnessed circumstances are the greatest proofs regarding this affair, because despite its advancement and vastness it has been unable to nurture and rectify the souls [i.e. upon excellent traits, manners, dealings, characteristics, sound creed etc] which are the determinants of [sound] rectification and success. What the Religion of Islaam propagates is that which is entrusted with this rectification; it is what will guide the thoughts towards the truthful and authentic sources of knowledge, guide the actions of the people towards good and prevent them from evil. Islam is The Rectifier of the Creeds and Manners- the thing that cultivates the thoughts [upon righteousness], urges towards virtuousness and prevents from depravity.

The essence of that which the religion calls to – regarding belief in the Unseen, which includes belief in Allah and that which He possesses of Names, Attributes and Actions of perfection; belief in Angels, belief in recompense for one’s good and bad deeds in this life and the next, which cannot be known except through the Messengers, is what acquaints a person with the fact that rectification – in reality – is not possible through other than sound belief and the religion of Islam.

Therefore, even if the worldly sciences rectify [some] affairs based upon that which [some] people know in detail, it will still not be equal [in perfection, excellence etc] to the knowledge of the Messengers [in the least]. It will neither reach that which is reached through the knowledge of the Messengers nor can it influence the souls in the manner in which the knowledge of the Messengers has done; for indeed the souls do not voluntarily submit except through belief in Allah, belief in His Angels, belief in His Books, belief in His Messengers and belief in the hereafter. And without this, voluntary submission is impossible, as is well known regarding human nature. [An Excerpt from Al-Adillah Al-Qawaati Wal-Baraaheen Fee Ibtaalil Usoolil Mulhideen. pages 45-50]

Footnote b:

Imam Muhammad Ibn Saaleh Al-Uthaymeen [may Allah have mercy upon him] said: What is intended by ‘Separation between religion and Siyaasah’ is that the ruler can do what he wants based on what he thinks is a means of fulfilling (responsibilities related to) affairs of the state, whether it agrees with Shariah or not; or even if what he does is based on the judgement of the religion, because the meaning of separation is to distinguish between two things and give them specific definitions. Therefore, in relation to this, the ruler looks at what he considers to be beneficial even if it opposes the Shariah. There is no doubt that this is a false and sinful statement, because the religion itself is Siyaasah and Siyaasah itself is the religion, but what we mean by Siyaasah is the Siyaasah that is based on equity and not oppression. The religion of Islam came to bring about wellbeing [and upright conduct] for the people in their behaviour towards their Lord and between themselves. It establishes the Rights of Allah, rights for the people- rights for parents, relatives, wives and the Muslims – in general. And even for non-Muslims, Islam has given them rights that are well-known to the scholars. It laid down the means and conditions for war and peace making, punishments for crimes – some of which are determined by way of specific texts and some are left to the jurisdiction of the ruler, as well as other affairs which clearly shows that Islaam in its entirety is Siyaasah. The root of this word Siyaasah is Saa’is and that is the person who is responsible for looking after the affairs of animals – fulfilling that which brings them wellbeing and repelling that which will harm them. This is Siyaasah. We find this meaning when we contemplate on affairs of the religion, and that Allaah has legislated – for the servants – things without which humans will not be able to establish [a fruitful, stable, orderly, safe] life, and forbade them from things that will corrupt their state of affairs – either affecting everyone or specific individuals. Therefore, in reality the entire religion is Siyaasah. And we are certain that anyone who separates Siyaasah from the Religion and establishes Siyaasah based on what he sees fit and what he forbids, then indeed his Siyaasah is corrupt, and it will cause more harm than good. If it rectifies one affair based on his limited [or deficient] opinions, then indeed it greatly corrupts from another angle. So, this makes it incumbent that one contemplates on the state of affairs of those who base their Siyaasah on their desires and opinions, and became distanced from the religion of Islaam, you will find -after contemplating – that either all that Siyaasah is corrupt or most of it, and that if it rectifies an affair from one angle, it corrupts from another angle. So, based on this, separation between Siyaasah and Religion is a sinful deed and it is obligated on the one who seeks to rectify himself and others that he does so only based on the religion of Islaam. [https://binothaimeen.net/content/7366 Paraphrased]

Footnote c: Imam As-Sadi, may Allah have mercy upon him, said:

Industrialization And Modern Inventions: Everyone has participated in it – the righteous, the wicked, the believer and the disbeliever. As for religion and [virtuous] manners, then indeed -in this era-, it has greatly declined. So, when this industrial advancement is devoid of sound religion and faith, it became a great harm from two angles:

Firstly: It beguiled many people, who – due of their ignorance – think that worldly advancement is proof to show that its people are more worthy of achieving every good than others. They are clearly misguided, for indeed a person might be from the most skillful in affairs related to the material world, whilst he is one of the most ignorant people in affairs related to the religion, virtuous manners and the [other] beneficial affairs in this life and the next.

Secondly: When these inventions are devoid of sound religion, its mercy and wisdom, it becomes a great disaster for humankind due to the wars that resulted from them, killing, destruction and other affairs related to it. Its regulators [or overseers] and scholars are unable to laydown – for humankind -a stable, just and good life, rather they have not ceased moving from one miserable state to another. This is inevitable and the continuous state of affairs shows that [to be the case]. Therefore all good is found in the sound religion and all evil is found in rejecting and willfully denying [Allaah, His Messengers, His Laws, Guidance, Commands, Prohibitions etc. [An Excerpt from Al-Adillah Al-Qawaati Wal-Baraaheen Fee Ibtaalil Usoolil Mulhideen. pages 45-50]

Footnote d: Imam As-Sadi [may Allah have mercy upon him] said:

Allah [The Exalted] said:
وأعدوا لهم ما استطعتم من قوة ومن رباط الخيل ترهبون به عدو الله وعدوكم

And make ready against them all you can of power, including steeds of war to threaten the enemy of Allah and your enemy]. [Surah Al-Anfaal. Ayah 60]

Allah commanded (Muslim rulers) to prepare everything that is feasible in terms of power, including political and mental fortitude, industries, weaponry, and everything else that is used to bolster (Muslim forces) and terrify enemies- all activities related to military strategy, military arts, diverse weapons, forts, and defences against the evils of the foes.  Allah [The Exalted] said: [يا أيها الذين آمنوا خذوا حذركم – O you who believe! Take your precautions]. [Surah An-Nisaa. Ayah 71]

See how these teachings of the Islamic Shariah represent the only (correct course of action) and the most powerful means of implementing both internal and external policy! Muslims attain perfection and righteousness when they are guided by these fundamental principles and their subsidiary matters, (whereas) the deficiency that is anticipated and arises is owing to disregarding these affairs and not paying close attention to them.

And from Siyaasah Shar’iyyah (see footnote a), (we learn that) Allah guides people to establish matters of universal welfare. It is the duty of each group in society to gain in-depth knowledge of the reality of a particular aspect of this welfare, what it depends on, the avenues through which it can be achieved and perfected, and to use all reasonable efforts to deliver it as much as possible. Allah [The Exalted] said:

ولتكن منكم أمة يدعون إلى الخير ويأمرون بالمعروف وينهون عن المنكر

Let there arise out of you a group of people inviting to all that is good (Islam), enjoining Al-Ma’ruf (i.e. Islamic Monotheism and all that Islam orders one to do) and forbidding Al-Munkar (polytheism and disbelief and all that Islam has forbidden). [Surah Al Imran. Ayah 104]

Allah [The Exalted] said:
وما كان المؤمنون لينفروا كافة فلولا نفر من كل فرقة منهم طائفة ليتفقهوا في الدين ولينذروا قومهم إذا رجعوا إليهم لعلهم يحذرون

And it is not (proper) for the believers to go out to fight (Jihad) all together. Of every troop of them, a party only should go forth, that they (who are left behind) may get instructions in (Islamic) religion, and that they may warn their people when they return to them, so that they may beware (of evil). [Surah At-Tawbah. Ayah 122]

There is no question that seeking public welfare in the manner that Allah has instructed is the reason for religious and worldly perfection, as observed by everyone who is familiar with it.

Allah said:
ادع إلى سبيل ربك بالحكمة والموعظة الحسنة وجادلهم بالتي هي أحسن

Invite (mankind, O Muhammad ) to the Way of your Lord (i.e. Islam) with wisdom (i.e. with the Divine Inspiration and the Qur’an) and fair preaching, and argue with them in a way that is better]. [Surah An-Nahl. Ayah 125]

This involves preaching to Muslims who have violated certain aspects of the religion, as well as preaching to nonbelievers. Muslims are exhorted to perfect their religion, while unbelievers are called to accept Islam as the only way to rectification for humanity. This call should be based on wisdom, which is to adopt the approach that is most effective for achieving good, perfecting it, and eliminating or reducing evil in the context of time, location, people, and circumstances.

Preaching should also be carried out with fine admonition, and this admonition consists of an explanation and a clarification of what is good and bad, as well as highlighting the advantages of the good outcomes in this life and the next. Because of its inherent goodness as well as its pathways that are marked by kindness, leniency, forbearance, patience, etc., Allah described this preaching as a good admonition. Additionally, if an argument is necessary to persuade someone, it should be presented in the best manner possible. The arguer should appeal for the truth, demonstrate its beauty and the evil that results from its opposite, and address any doubts raised by the opponent. This should be done with polite words and excellent manners, not with force, harshness, callousness, or verbal abuse because those things can cause great harm. Allah said:

فبما رحمة من الله لنت لهم ولو كنت فظا غليظ القلب لانفضوا من حولك فاعف عنهم

And by the Mercy of Allah, you dealt with them gently. And had you been severe and harsh-hearted, they would have broken away from about you; so overlook (their faults)]. [Surah Aal Imran Aayah 159] [An Excerpt from Ad-Deenus Saheeh Yahillu Jamee al-Mashaakil (The right religion is the answer to every problem)-Page 15-16]

Foontote e:

A case illustrating how poisonous ideas permeated minds of certain people within the Ummah.

Footnote f:

https://abukhadeejah.com/muslim-identity-honour-that-islam-brings-danger-of-following-non-muslim-culture/