[24] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Sultan Mahmud I (1143 – 1168 AH):

He ascended to the throne after the situation stabilised following the disturbances caused by the Janissaries. He decided to bring in a European military advisor from France, named Alexandre, Count de Bonneval. He was entrusted with the task of revitalising the artillery corps and introduced new military systems based on French and Austrian principles, aiming to restore military service as a genuine profession by providing salaries and benefits. He proposed the reorganisation of the Janissary divisions into smaller units led by young officers; however, the Janissaries opposed this plan and halted its implementation. Consequently, Bonneval focused on the artillery corps and also took an interest in the production of cannons, gunpowder, rifles, mines, and artillery carts. He established a military engineering school, but the Janissaries resisted all these initiatives. Additionally, he set up a paper factory, yet these reforms quickly faded away.

The Ottoman Empire directed its efforts towards combating the Safavid Shiites, ultimately defeating Shah Tahmasp, who sought peace in the year 1144 AH / 1731 CE. As a result, the Ottomans relinquished control over Tabriz, Hamadan, and Lorestan. However, the Shah’s governor in Khorasan, Nader Shah, rejected this treaty. He advanced towards Isfahan, deposed Shah Tahmasp, and appointed his son Abbas in his position, establishing a regency council to lead the campaign against the Ottomans. Nader Shah achieved victory over them and laid siege to Baghdad. The Ottoman state requested a truce, leading to an agreement in 1149 AH / 1736 CE in the city of Tbilisi, where Nader Khan proclaimed himself king of the Persians, and it was agreed that the Ottomans would return all territories taken from the Iranian Shiites.

The War with European States:

Russia and Austria declared war on Poland, leading to its occupation by Russia. France sought to ally with the Ottoman Empire to rescue Poland from both Austria and Russia. Austria, in turn, appeased France with the Treaty of Vienna while simultaneously agreeing to engage in conflict with the Ottoman Empire. Russia commenced hostilities against the Ottomans, but the Ottomans successfully halted the Russian advance in the region of Bessarabia and also stopped Austria’s progress in Bosnia, Serbia, and Wallachia. The Ottomans achieved victory over the Serbs and the Austrian forces, which subsequently withdrew from the conflict and sought peace through France. A peace treaty was signed in Belgrade in 1152 AH /1739 CE, in which Austria ceded the city of Belgrade, along with Serbia and Wallachia, while Russia pledged not to construct ships in the Black Sea and to dismantle the fortifications at the port of Azov.

Sultan Uthman III (1168 – 1171 AH / 1758 – 1761 CE):

He ascended to the throne at the age of 58 and was officially recognised in the Masjid of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, where he was congratulated by European ambassadors. His reign lasted only three years, during which there were no wars or external conflicts. He focused on internal reforms, issuing decrees to prohibit anything contrary to Islamic law, and successfully suppressed revolts and uprisings throughout the empire, particularly those led by Kurds. It is noted that he would discreetly assess the conditions of his subjects at night while disguised.

Sultan Mustafa III (1171 – 1187 AH / 1757 -1773 CE):

He ascended to the throne at the age of 42 and possessed extensive knowledge in state administration. He appointed Grand Vizier Muhammad Raghib Pasha due to his broad understanding and experience in national affairs. Muhammad Raghib Pasha was able to quell the uprising of Arab forces in the Levant, who had attacked the caravans of pilgrims. Sultan Mustafa perceived that the imminent threat to the Ottoman Empire stemmed from the emergence of the new Russian power. It appeared that he was aware of the Russian scheme devised by Peter the Great in his will, aimed at fragmenting the Ottoman state. Consequently, Sultan Mustafa prepared for war against Russia by initiating reforms within the Ottoman army to enhance its capability to confront European forces. As a result, the Grand Vizier successfully negotiated an agreement with the Prussian government to assist the Ottoman Empire when necessary against Austria and Russia, while also working to expand both maritime and land trade. A project was initiated to open a channel connecting the Tigris River to Istanbul, utilising rivers as a route to facilitate the transport of grain from the provinces to the capital, thereby promoting trade. However, the project was left unfulfilled due to the death of its initiator in the year 1176 AH / 1762 CE. He was succeeded in the grand vizierate by Hamed Hamza Pasha, followed by Mustafa Bahir Pasha in 1177 AH / 1763 CE, and then by Muhsen Zadeh Muhammad Pasha in 1178 AH / 1764 CE.

The Ottoman Empire then engaged in a conflict with Russia due to Cossack incursions into border regions. The Crimean Khan successfully raided and destroyed several estates in 1182 AH / 1768 CE. The grand vizier attempted to lift the siege on certain locations besieged by the Russians but ultimately failed, resulting in his execution. His successor also faced defeat, leading to the Russian occupation of the regions of Wallachia and Moldavia. The Russians incited the Orthodox Christians to revolt against the state, particularly stirring unrest among the Christians in the Peloponnese, which led to a rebellion that was eventually suppressed. However, the Russians launched an attack on the city of Trabzon but were unsuccessful in capturing it, but they succeeded in invading the Crimean territories and establishing control over them in the year 1185 AH / 1771 CE. Subsequently, peace negotiations took place; however, they failed due to Russia’s unreasonable demands, leading to the resumption of hostilities, in which the Ottomans emerged victorious.

The focus on supporting internal revolts

The conspiratorial actions of the Russian Crusaders against the Ottoman Empire became evident, as they sought to fragment the state from within. They incited the governor of Egypt, Ali Bey al-Kabir, who was referred to as the Shaikh of the Country, to rebel against the Ottoman authority in the year 1183 AH (1770 CE). He complied and ordered that his name be invoked in sermons. In the island of Paros, a meeting took place between the Russian Crusaders and envoys sent by Ali Bey al-Kabir, where a cunning plan was devised to dismantle the Ottoman Empire from within, with Ali Bey al-Kabir positioned as a key player, alongside Tahir al-Amir, the Ottoman governor of Acre. Consequently, Ali Bey led the Muslim population of Egypt in combat against the Ottoman forces in the Levant, forcefully entering Syria in 1185 AH. He even captured Damascus and Sidon, and laid siege to Jaffa with the assistance of Tahir al-Amir. Furthermore, when the Ottoman forces besieged Sidon, the Russians aided their agent in lifting the siege and supplied him with weapons, ultimately seizing Beirut in 1186 AH. Then Ali Bey al-Kabir was captured, and he died in captivity. The other person, Tahir al-Amir, was killed after the siege of Acre, at the hands of Muhammad Bey, known as Abu al-Dhahab.

When the Christian Crusaders found themselves unable to confront the Ottoman Empire on the battlefield, they resorted to undermining the state from within, exploiting those weak in faith who claim to be Muslims, outwardly displaying its rituals while losing sight of the concepts of loyalty and enmity due to their desires and ambitions. The enemies of the Muslim community consistently sought to ignite discord within the lands of Islam, aiming to undermine the community’s human, economic, and moral strength, thereby rendering it vulnerable to defeat by adversaries. Sultan Mustafa III was among the fighting sultans who confronted the Crusader Russian assaults on the state, inflicting several defeats upon them. He possessed a keen insight and foresight, recognizing that the Ottoman Empire was entering a period of decline and fall. The war with Russia persisted for an extended period, commencing in 1768 and concluding in 1774. During this conflict, the Ottoman Empire lost significant and vital territories, marking the onset of genuine weakness, stagnation, and decline within the state. Sultan Mustafa III fell ill during the war due to grief and passed away at approximately 57 years of age. His rulership ended in 1187 AH, and his brother, Abdul Hamid I, succeeded him.

An Excerpt from Ad-Dawlah al-Uthaniyyah Awamil An-Nuhud Wa Asbab As-Suqut 6/344-349